First, please reflect on all of the following questions as you read the text.  Wherever possible try to have ready concrete references cited from the text to substantiate or illuminate your response.

Second, on discussion days choose one of the questions to respond to in written form--in no less than a solid paragraph and no more than one page typed.  These responses will be submitted in class on discussion days whenever you are not doing the longer (3-page) paper.

Justin Martyr, Second Apology
 These questions are for your own reflection as you read this text.  Choose any one of them for your 1-paragraph response (no more than 1 page!) and hand it in on Friday.  We will discuss these questions in class.

1. What general information can you find about the author, context, and audience of this text from the text itself?
2. What seems to be Justin's purpose in writing this text?  (Point to a specific passage to support your view.)
3. What were some of the common accusations against Christians in Justin's day?  How does Justin defend Christianity against these attacks?
4. How does he compare Christianity with pagan philosophy?  What arguments does Justin pose for the superiority of Christianity to paganism?
5. What do we find out about Justin's own background as well as the plight of Christians in section #12?
6. Justin uses the term "logos" throughout this apology.  How does he define it, and in what way is the logos important to his argument and puropose in this Apology?
7. How has he himself been influenced by pagan culture, and in what ways does he try to build bridges to pagan culture & philosophy? 

Irenaeus, Against Heresies (excerpts from Bk. III); "Gnostic" & Variant Christian Texts
Be sure to look again at the Gospel of Thomas (assigned Week One), and read the Acts of Paul and Thecla & at least skim The Second Treatise of the Great Seth in addition to Irenaeus.  Before answering the questions on Irenaeus, you should review what your textbook says about Marcion (HWCM, pp.80-82) and chapter 11, entitled "Gnostics, Catholics, and Manichaeans," which includes discussion of Irenaeus. 

1. Compare the Gospel of Thomas with the Gospel of Mark, both of which you read or skimmed the first week of class.  What is similar and what is different in these two “gospels”?  How does each writer portray Jesus, and what seems to be the main focus of each Gospel?
2. In addition to the Gospel of Thomas, other texts like the Acts of Paul and Thecla and the Treatise of the Great Seth were spreading among Christian communities of the second and third centuries.  What problems might the proliferation of such texts, many claiming apostolic authority, pose for the Christian movement?  (If you choose this question for your one-page response, focus on one specific problem that might have arisen out of the teachings in one of these texts.)
3. What were some of the main "heresies" (false teachings, from Irenaeus's perspective) being spread among Christians according to Book III of Against Heresies?  Describe one of the "heretical" beliefs that Irenaeus sets out to oppose.
4. What specific arguments does Irenaeus use to counter or oppose the false teachings of the Gnostics & other groups?  (Or, in what ways does he attempt to safeguard the Christian faith?)  Go through the text and see if you can come up with several points or arguments (they are interrelated).  Be ready to cite or refer to a key passage that represents each particular argument.  (If you choose this question for your response, outline only one argument.)
5. What is Irenaeus's understanding of the Christian faith?  How does this compare/contrast with that of the Gnostics?
6. How does Irenaeus understand the function of a bishop?  To what extent do you think this view of the bishop will solve the problems the church faces in this era?
7. Irenaeus describes how several different Gnostic groups viewed the Gospels and other New Testament writings (see especially chapter 11, section 7, pp. 64-66).  How does Irenaeus oppose their views?  Did you find his arguments convincing, and/or do you think they would have been convincing for many people in his own day?  Why or why not?
8. In what way does the Muratorian Fragment throw light on the relation between orthodoxy, heresy and Bible in the 2^nd to 3^rd century?

Monastic Texts: Life of Antony, Palladius, Lausiac History, & The Rule of St. Benedict
(Be ready to discuss these questions in class on Monday, Sept. 26.  You may choose any of the questions under sections I-III for your one-page response.)

I. Athanasius, Life of Antony
1. What different froms of asceticism does Antony practice according to the account in his Life?  In what sense might this kind of lifestyle have been regarded as a preparation for martyrdom?
2. How does Antony view the physical body?  (Give concrete examples.)  Why do you think the body is so denigrated in this text?
3. Antony is constantly attacked by demons who tempt him in various ways.  What kinds of temptations or attacks does he face, and how does he counter them?  Note at least one concrete example.
4. What do we learn from the biography about Antony’s theological views?  [See especially chapter 69.]  In light of what you know about Antony’s biographer, why might this be significant?

II. Palladius, The Lausiac History
5. How would you describe the monastic life of Macarius of Alexandria in this text?  What similarities & differences do you find between his life & the life of Antony? 6. How do the main virtues of Christian ascetics in this text this compare with the virtues most valued by Christian martyrs, e.g., in the account of Perpetua & Felicitas?  How does this compare with the virtues most valued by neo-platonists?  (If you write on this question choose either Christian martyrs or neoplatonists as the focus of your comparison.)
7. What kind of women were drawn to the monastic movement?  What do we learn about their background & way of life prior to undertaking the monastic life?  What issues or difficulties might their commitment to monastic life have caused fortheir families or society at large?

III. Benedict of Nursia, The Rule of St. Benedict
8. Who was Benedict’s audience and why was he writing?  In other words, why do you think a Rule was needed? Are there any hints in the text itself?
9.  Compare the monastic life of Antony in his Life (written around 150 years before Benedict's Rule) with the style of life described in the Rule?  What similarities as well as differences did you notice?
10. Compare the monastic life of Macarius in Palladius's text (written around a century before the Rule) with the style of life described in Benedict’s Rule.  What might be the significance of this contrast?

Questions for further reflection & discussion in class (not for writing assignment):
-Why do you think Antony became such a hero, such an inspiration to people of his day & to succeeding generations?
- Why would anyone choose to join a monastery?  Why would anyone commit their children to one (an increasingly common practice in the Middle Ages)?   What do you personally find attractive or off-putting in this picture of monasticism?
-What seems to be the purpose or goal of all the self-restraint or deprivation described in these accounts?  What, if anything, does this form of spirituality have to offer to the world today?

Week 6:  Christianity and Christianization On or Beyond the Roman Frontiers

Texts on the Goths, Persia, Armenia, and Georgia
    1. What light does Auxentius’s account of the missionary bishop thrown on the Nicene-Arian controversy in the middle of the fourth century?
    2. How does Auxentius present Ulfila’s work as a missionary among the Goths?  What aspects of his ministry does the author emphasize, how, and why?
    3. Review the progress of events in the account of The Martyrdom of Martha (RWCH, 110-112).  Which individuals are involved in the account? What is their status in Persian society? What do we learn from this account about Persia, Christians, and Christianity in Persia?
    4. What, if any, distinctive features or traditions of the Christian movement did you observe in this text from Persia?
    5. How does Agathangelos describe Gregory the Illuminator and his work as a missionary to the Armenians (RWCH, 122-130)?  What role does the woman Rhipsime play in the account?  What aspects of Gregory’s ministry does Agathangelos emphasize and why?
    6. Compare the conversion of King Trdat of Armenia with that of Emperor Constantine?  Although there are obvious differences, what might be the significance of the similarities in the presentation of their conversion and its aftermath in their respective territories?
    7. Agathangelos’s History of the Armenians was written in the later half of the fifth century, approximately 150 years after the alleged events it describes.  What problems does this pose for historians using the text as a source for the Christianization of Armenia?  If this text is unreliable in its description of the details of Armenia’s conversion, what, if any value might it have as a historical source?
    8. In Rufinus’s Ecclesiastical History 10.11-12 (RWCH, 108-109) he describes key events and personalities in the Christianization of Armenia’s neighbor, Georgia.  What similarities do you find in the people involved and the process of Christianization between this account and one or more of the other accounts you have read?
    9. Three elements of the Christianization process occur in different ways in at least three of the four texts assigned for today:  rulers, martyrdom, and the prominent role of women.  Discuss the similarities and differences in the presentation of these themes.  What is the significance of these factors in these accounts of national conversions?  Give concrete examples from the texts to illustrate your points.  (If you choose to write on this question, focus on only one of these three factors – rulers OR martyrdom OR the role of women in the process of Christianization.) 

St. Augustine, Confessions
Directions:  In addition to Books VI-VIII, please read at least Bks. I.i-v and xi-xiii; II.iii-x; III, i-vi; and skim V.  These questions refer to Books VI-VIII, but if you read more, you may certainly bring in other angles from your reading. Choose any of the following seven questions for your 1-page response.

1) Who were the Manichees?  (You’ll find it easier to answer this question if you’ve read Book V.)  What did they believe, & what attracted Augustine to their teachings?  Why did he begin to question their views?
2) What factors (people, teachings, experiences, etc.) begin to move Augustine toward Christian faith at the end of Book V & in Book VI?
3) What were the philosophical and/or theological issues that most perplexed Augustine in his youth & young manhood?  (Be ready to give specific examples or references.)
4) Although Confessions was written relatively early in Augustine’s career, many of his main theological ideas are already present in this work.  Judging from the portion of the text you have read, what would you say were some of his major teachings?  (Jot down specific chapters and/or relevant page numbers.)
5) In Book VII Augustine acknowledges that he benefitted from the books of the “Platonists”, i.e. neo-platonists.  How was he helped by neo-platonic philosophy?  Where does he part company with the neo-platonists?
6) What role does Marius Victorinus play in Augustine’s life?  [VIII.ii.3-5, pp.134-137]  He was a very old man by the time Augustine wrote the Confessions, but stories about him strongly influenced Augustine. Why?
7) At what point in his account would you say that Augustine was “converted” to Christianity?  How does Augustine understand conversion?  From what you know of his earlier life, why do you think the passage Augustine read from the Bible in Book VIII, chapter 12 was so significant?

For further reflection and discussion (not for writing assignment):
-Look at the chronology on p.xxix of the Oxford edition of the text.  At around what age (and/or stage of his career) did Augustine write the Confessions?  What do you think was his purpose in writing?
-What did you think of Augustine as a person?  Did you like him or not?  Could you identify with him in any specific situations, or did you find his struggles very different from those of an average university student of today?
- If you have time, read 10.23 & 27.  Why are people so unhappy according to Augustine?  Do you agree with his assessment of people as you consider people today.  (I.e., are most people unhappy, & if so what do you think is the reason?)  What, according to Augustine, is the method to achieve happiness, i.e. the road to God?  [7.10, 8.7, 9.4, 9.10, 10.2]

Week 9: Christianity in Asia; Islamic & Buddhist Contexts
(Be sure to read the textbook, especially pp. 282-287 and 314-322 before reading the primary-source texts and corresponding questions below.)

“Apology of Patriarch Timothy Before the Caliph Mahdi,” RWCH, 231-242
1. Describe the tone of the dialogue between Patriarch Timothy and the caliph, and give a concrete example to substantiate your main point.  What does the dialogue reveal about relations between Christians and Muslims in Persia in this period?  (Discuss one point.)
2. What is the main theological issue at stake in this apology?  Why does the caliph object to the Christian point of view on this issue?  Which of the caliph's objections would you consider the strongest or most challenging for Christians?  (Answer just one of the last two questions if you choose this question for your response.
3. Which of Timothy’s arguments do you think would have been most compelling for the caliph?  Why?
4. To what extent does Timothy identify his Christological views in this treatise?  How, if at all, might he have argued differently if he held to Chalcedonian Christology?  (Note:  Melkite =  literally "Imperial" church; derogatory term for those who held to Chalcedonian Christology)
5.  On what issues, if any, do Patriarch Timothy and the caliph agree?

Inscription on the Monument of the Church of the East at Xian [=Xi'an inscription] in China (781 AD), RWCH, 243-246
2 Chinese Liturgical Sutras: The Sutra of Jesus Christ & Taking Refuge in the Trinity, RWCH, 243-251
6. Drawing from the text inscribed on the Xi'an stone monument in China and/or  the Chinese liturgical sutras describe the process of Christian missions in China in the seventh and eighth centuries.  Who were the main personnel involved, and what were some of their strategies?
7. Why do you think Chinese emperors of the T'ang dynasty received Christian missionaries and the Christian religion favorably?  Refer to at least one passage in one of the texts to illustrate or substantiate your point.
8. Reflecting on any one of these texts from the largely Buddhist context of seventh to eighth century China, to what extent does the Christian movement reflect the character and ideals of Christianity in the Greco-Roman world? 
9. In what sense does the Christian message differ from the emphases we have been studying?  Give a concrete example of how the message is changed or adapted for its new cultural context?

Week 10:  The "Christianization" of Western Europe
Excerpts from Bede, History of the English Church; Life of St. Leoba; and The Heliand
(Choose any one of the questions for your 1-page response.  Friday discussion will focus on Bede and The Heliand.)

Bede, A History of the English Church and People, Bk. I.23-26, 30, and Bk. III.25, RWCH, 258-264
1. What kind of text is this?  What is distinctive about the author’s purpose in this text in comparison with other texts we have read so far this semester?  What kinds of information and/or documents does he include in his account?
2. Describe the process of Christianizing the Anglo-Saxons as recounted by Bede.  What are some of the factors that led to the conversion of the king and many of the English people?
3. Describe Pope Gregory’s approach to missions giving at least one concrete example from the text.  What are the benefits and what are the dangers of such an approach?
4. Book III.25 reveals different traditions within the Christian churches in the British Isles.  What problems does this cause and how are issues resolved?  What seems to be Bede’s perspective?

The Heliand. The Saxon Gospel  (You may find it helpful to read Irvin & Sunquist, p. 341, as an introduction to this text.  Whatever you do, don’t skip this fascinating re-telling of the Gospel in a Germanic cultural idiom!)
1. Describe the nature and purpose of The Heliand with specific reference to one or more of the Songs.  Why do you think the author chose this approach to tell the story of the life and teaching of Jesus?
2. Discuss one example from this text of the author contextualizing the Gospel for the Saxons.  On whom (what types of people) do you think this text would have had a particular impact, and  why?
3. How does this text compare with the approach of Gregory the Great and his missionaries in bringing Christianity to the pagans of Britain?

For further reflection & discussion (not for written assignment):
-What does this reading suggest about the meaning of conversion?  How does the situation of the English in this period compare with the mass of Christians in the U.S. today?  To what extent are Christianity and culture in the West so closely intertwined that it becomes difficult to separate them?

1. What do sections 1-2 suggest about the state of the church & its situation vis-a-vis the political situation?  What background information (e.g. from Irvin & Sunquist) helps you to make sense of the circumstances John of Damascus describes?
2. How do John's arguments in sections 4-5 & 27  relate to the Christological controversies?  What position does he take on
Christology and what does this have to do with the debate about images?
3. What are the two different types of "worship" John describes throughout the text, and how does this relate to his overall
argument in defense of images?
4. What does John reveal about his understanding of matter or the material world?  What does his view of matter have to do with the question of salvation (in section 16 in particular)?  How is  his view similar to or different from that of the neo-platonists, and how does it support his defense of icons?
5. In what ways does John argue for or defend images of the saints in addition to icons of Christ and Mary? (20-24)
6. Though there are overlapping themes throughout the treatise, try to identify two or three distinct points or arguments John
presents in defense of images.  In each case, what seems to be the opposing argument which he is attempting to refute?
7. How does John make his case or support his argument in this treatise?  To which sources of authority does he appeal throughout Part I and the accompanying "Testimony" [available in the on-line version]?  Did you find his arguments convincing or persuasive?

For further reflection (not for written assignment):
Under an iconoclast regime John of Damascus was condemned and exiled for his views on images.  Other iconodules were tortured or martryred for their convictions. Why did this controversy  provoke such intensity of debate and feeling?  Can you think of any comparable theological or religious issue for Christians today? 

Life of Constantine[-Cyril]
1.. Reflecting on Constantine’s missions to the Muslim Arabs (Saracens or Hagarites in the text), the Khazars and finally to the Slavs, what similarities or differences do you find in the major issues he confronts or his strategies of persuasion?
2. Discuss Constantine’s preparation and actual work among the Slavic peoples of Greater Moravia (chaps. 14-18).  What were the key elements in his approach to missions in this area, and why do you think this approach was important or effective?
3.According to the author, for what reasons did the “cohorts of the Latin-speaking high priests, priests & their disciples” (chap. 15) criticize the work of the brothers in Moravia?  What other factors might lie behind their opposition to this mission?
4. Why did Constantine & Methodius go to Rome after the first phase of their mission, and what does this text suggest about relations between Byzantium and the Latin West during this period? 

Four Contemporary Perspectives on the Crusades (Latin, Jewish, Muslim & Byzantine)
(Choose any question for your 1-page response)

1) What does Abbot Guibert of Nogent's account of the first crusade in The Deeds of God through the Franks (especially Book Two) reveal about the state of European society and the church in the late eleventh century?  Drawing from this account as well as the account of Fulcher of Chartres, in what ways do some of the problems in society and the reforming ideals of the church relate to or feed into the crusading movement?
2) On pp. 326-328 Guibert reports on Pope Urban II's speech at the Council of Clermont (1095).  What specific motivations does Pope Urban II provide for coming to the aid of Christians in the east against the Seljuq Turks?  (Imagine you are a 19-yr. old young man hearing this appeal.  What emotions do you think it might stir in you?)
3)  Describe the crusaders' religious beliefs as revealed in Fulcher's account (espeically in Book Seven, pp. 328-334).  How does their religion influence the way they perceive their mission?  How would you characterize their motives?  (Note a specific passage or example to illustrate your point.)
4)  How do the crusaders view the Muslims?  How does the crusaders' understanding of Muslim religion compare to what you have learned about Islam?

5) According to the account of Solomon bar Simson, how did the crusading Franks end up attacking Jews in the Rhineland? How do the Franks view the Jews and their religion according to this author?  How do the Jews view the religion of the crusaders?  (What specific expressions and metaphors does he use to describe their Christian beliefs?)
6) In what terms does Solomon ben Simson describe the sacrifice or mass suicide of the Jews in Mainz?  How does he interpret what happened there?  How does this account of “martyrdom” compare with the martyrdom accounts of early Christians that we read at the beginning of the course?  (What similarities and/or contrasts did you find with regard to piety, religious emotions, views of death or views of the persecutors?)

7) What light do the accounts of Ibn al-Athir  throw on the character and religion of the Franks?  What new things do you learn about Muslim religion from these passages?

1) How did Abelard come to engage in the study of theology, in particular the study and teaching of Scripture?  What did he study before this, and how did he relate his earlier study to his pursuit of theology?
2) What does this text reveal about typical roles & views of women in the twelfth century?  In what ways does Heloise both fit and break the mold?  Be specfic.
3) In Heloise’s arguments against marriage (especially in chapter VII), what picture does she present of the model philosopher or theologian?  How does this ideal compare with the character and temperament of the theologians described by Abelard throughout the narrative?
4) Describe the atmosphere in which theology was studied and taught in Abelard’s account.  Toward the beginning of chapter IX Abelard speaks of students who held that “nothing could be believed unless it could first be understood...”  How does this reflect a new approach or a new way of doing theology?  What was the old way of doing it?
5) What does this account suggest about those in leadership in the church during this period?  What picture does Abelard give of the monastic movement (refer to specific examples), and how does this square with what you have been reading about monasticism in this period?
6) Both in his foreward and toward the end of chapter XV Ableard reflects on his motives in writing down this story of his misfortunes.  What does he say they are?  What kind of person was Abelard, and what does this treatise itself suggest about his motives?

1. In your own words re-phrase Bernard's basic argument in Chapter VII of this text.  Give a contemporary example of the type of person he describes in the first half of this chapter.
2. How would you describe Bernard's method or approach to theology in On Loving God?  Refer to a specific example from the text to illustrate your point.
3. How does Bernard's approach to theology compare with the way theology was being pursued in the medieval schools described by Peter Abelard?  In what ways are the approaches similar and/or different?  What are the potential advantages and disadvantages of either approach?
4. How does Bernard describe the relation of body and soul throughout the work, especially in chapter XI?

1. Drawing from the text of the account of Rabban Sawma and Mar Yahbh-Allaha (not just from background reading), what do we learn about the the Christian movement in different areas of Asia in the thirteenth century?  What kinds of political, social, economic, or cultural obstacles did Christians face?  (Focus on one geographical area or one obstacle in your response.)
2. How and why (for what reasons) does Rabban Sawma come to undertake his journey to Europe (described in Chapter VII)?  Drawing from both the text and background reading, explain the political and religious background to Sawma's mission.
3. How do Christian practices or Christian theological ideas revealed in this text compare with dominant practices or ideas in western Europe during the same period.  What is similar and what is different?  (Obviously this is a very broad question.  Focus on one or two points that you can draw from the primary-source text.)
4. What can we learn about the papacy and/or the relation between church and state in Europe in the thirteenth century from Chapter VII?  How did popes view themselves, their role, and non-European Christians as a whole?
5. Describe the setting and the plight of the Church of the East in Chapters XI-XIII.  What are the primary political forces and who are the main ecclesiastical figures depicted in the account?
6.  How does the author describe persecution and martyrdom in this account?  How does the perspective of eastern Christians in the early 1300s in Asia compare/contrast with that of other Christians we have read about who faced similar challenges at the hands of non-Christian political authorities?
* What religious and/or cultural factors particularly interested you in this text?  Compose your own question about the text and answer it!