A general focus on the reign of Gordianus Pius

Arthur E. Noot

Research on any subject can be interesting or tedious, depending upon your enthusiasm. When there is a minimum of reliable information to pursue - as is the case with the reign of Gordian III - research can become very difficult, somewhat like a mystery to unravel. My attempt here is to sketch some of the events just before, during, and after the reign of Gordian III, focusing primarily upon what we know or can infer concerning the period A.D. 238-244.

I borrowed the title of this article from Edward Gibbon. He called these the times of "The Disruption of the Empire", using that phrase as a heading for one of his chapters in The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. The information available to us generally supports Gibbon’s description. This period of disruption was followed by a breakdown throughout the Empire, and the creation of breakaway empires during the latter part of the third century. Total collapse was avoided through the single minded efforts of a few warrior Emperors, such as Aurelian (AD 270--275), culminating in the New Order of Diocletian (AD 284-305).

Our sources of reliable information concerning Gordianus Pius are very meager. The Scriptores Historiae Augustae provides somewhat conflicting accounts of the lives of the two Maximini, the three Gordiani, and of Balbinus & Maximus. Cassius Dio’s history ends in A.D. 229, and the valuable statements of Herodian - a contemporary of Cassius Dio - end in A.D. 238 with Gordian’s accession. Only fragments have survived of the contemporary history of the Athenian Dexippus. We do know that the Latin historian Ammianus Marcellinus these times in great detail, but this portion of his work has evidently been lost.

Only papyri, numismatic, and inscriptional materials aid in the lessening of the confusion of the period, although some scraps of information have been found in the Greek chronicles of the Middle Ages - especially those of the fifth century Zosimus, the ninth century Georgius Syncellus, and of Johnanes Zonaras, a twelfth century annalist. The Latin works of Sextus Aurelius Victor, Eutropius, Sextus Rufus, and the individual identified as the Chronographer of 354 shed very little light, according to my sources.

We can be reasonably certain that during the year 238, the Roman Empire saw the imperial power pass through the hands of at least six emperors - a series of events similar in some ways to those which occurred during the Civil Wars in A.D. 68-9. At the beginning of the year 238, the Thracian Maximinus and his son were supreme in the State. Maximinus began his military career in the Roman cavalry, and was noticed by Septimius Severus because of his great physical size, strength, and fighting prowess. Even Alexander Severus caused him to be elected a Senator, and promoted him to various important posts. The sources I’ve read describe Maximinus as a harsh and suspicious person - "proud, insolent, and bloodthirsty" - he eventually caused the assassination of Alexander Severus and replaced him on the throne. In March of that same year, and African revolt brought power to Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus, and octogenarian Roman Senator and Proconsul of Africa, as well as to his son of the same name. Severus had sent him to Africa as Proconsul in 229 with his son as Lieutenant.

Both Gordians were raised to the throne by the Senate, and Maximinus was outlawed. After less than 50 days, both Gordians were dead; the elder possibly a suicide upon learning of the great army owing allegiance to Maximinus that was marching against him, the younger Gordian being killed in battle.

The Senate then selected two of its own - Balbinus and Pupienus - as co-emperors to oppose the now outlawed Maximinus who still, incidentally, had at his command the Danubian Legions. Maximinus was killed as he invaded Italy from Illyricum. By about May of 238, it was clear that neither the army nor the populace of Rome were happy with the two co-emperors, and they were forced to adopt Gordian III, the grandson of Gordian I, as Caesar.

The Praetorian Guard still felt that the Senate was regaining too much power with this arrangement, and so in about June, they murdered both co-emperors after a reign of less than a hundred days. At the same time, the proclaimed Gordian III the new Emperor. Gordian was about thirteen years of age at the time.

It is likely that the Preatorians saw Gordian as "manageable", and in any event hewas extremely popular with the people. The memories of Gordian I and II were still fresh - both were held in very high esteem - and Gordian was thought to be descended from the Cornelii, one of the most illustrious families of the Republic. His mother, Maecia Faustina, was a great granddaughter of the Emperor Trajan. Gordian I, of course, was one of the wealthiest and most powerful men of the empire, owning not only Pompey’s famed house, but also holding more land in the provinces than any other Roman.

The family was also seen as upholding political traditions of the Senate; for six generations, members of the family had held the Consulship. Gordian I had served as Consul with Caracalla in 213, and Gordian II with Alexander Severus. The young Gordian III had been designated both Praetor and Consul in the short reign of the elder Gordians. Then, too, the elder Gordians had been placed among the deified emperors and so our Gordian adopted the cognomen Pius, perhaps as a tribute to his elders. Inscriptions during his reign point clearly to his relationship to Gordian II, and allude also to his putative relationships to Marcus Aurelius (Divi Marci Antonii Sororis Filius).

Gordianus was described as a handsome individual of even disposition, possessing a fine sense of humor. Early in his reign he associated himself with Timesitheus, whose daughter he soon married. Timesitheus (named in some sources as "Misitheus") became his Praetorian Praefect, the commander of the Praetorian Guard. We can infer clearly that Timesitheus also functioned as a powerful Prim Minister, and had great influence upon Gordian. We are told that he was held in high esteem by his contemporaries because of his "wisdom, seriousness, and prudence". His daughter, Turia Sabina Tranquillina, was said to have inherited her father’s good qualities, and is described as a great beauty and a person of virtue, "...her personal life was innocent and free of all suspicion of vice or pride...she used her power to seek opportunities for helping people less fortuate..."

Gordianus, Timesitheus, and Tranquillina were evidently very close, and acted quickly - almost as a triumvirate - to correct many of the policy problems in the imperial system that had grown nearly out of control since the death of Alexander Severus. The information we have suggests the reign was a promising one, and that the stature of these three individuals was such that a revitalized Rome was expected and intended, probably modeled on the times of Marcus Aurelius.

This did not happen, of course.

In the year of Rome 994, during the second Consulship of Gordianus Pius (A.D. 241), the Persians invaded Mesopotamia. This immediately changed the priorities developing at Rome under Gordian. The invasion spread terror throughout the east and in Italy itself, primarily because of the known reputation of the Persian King Sapor I. The Parthian empire - always a serious menace - had undergone an internal revolution in about 226-7. The rebel Persian usurper, claiming to belong to the Achaemenid ruling family, had overthrown the vast Parthian Empire and had established a new Persian or Sassanid Empire during the reign of Alexander Severus. The son of this successful rebel was called Sapor. He is described in several sources as "making dreadful havoc whereever he went...(and that) his father had bequeathed him his bloody and tyrannical disposition...he was of gigantic stature, of furious and implacable temper...one of the least tortures he inflicted upon those he punished was to have their skin torn from their bodies while they were still alive..."

Gordian, with the guidance and leadership of Timesitheus, made immense preparations for the expedition against the Persians, and in the year of Rome 995 (A.D.242) they left Rome with the core Legions and supplies. Large additional contingents joined with them as they moved through Moesia, Thrace, and into Asia and Syria. On the way, they repelled the Carpi - a Germanic tribe which was invading Moesia - and also large bands of raiders who had penetrated into Thrace. The long period of preparation yielded great results. Victory followed victory as Gordian’s advance broke the back of the Persian invasion. He recovered Antioch and many other cities, and finally drove the Persian monarch out of Mesopotamia altogether. There had been near hysterical fear at Rome. As the news of the victories arrived, the city went made with joy and praise for Gordian and his Preatorian Praefect.

Great triumphs were voted by the Senate, but the temper of the populace was such that "preliminary festivals" also were voted. Actually, they were triumphs and were held even though Gordian was still in the East. In fact, neither Gordian nor his friend Timesitheus would see Rome again. The victorius Timesitheus became ill "of the flux". Gordian immediately sent for the greatest physicians known, and recovery was thought possible. However, it is believed that one M. Julius Phillipus, an officer that had risen through the ranks because of his military skill, found a means to convey poison into the medicine. Timesitheus died.

Knowing nothing of this, Gordian appointed the ambitious Philip to the power of the Praetorian Praefect. From that moment, we can infer that Philip undermined his master in every way possible so that the Army would become disaffected.

One example is repeated in several sources: the corn ships failed to arrive and Philip fomented the indignation of the soldiers against Gordian as the author of that misfortune. Philip’s purpose was to replace Gordian as an Emperor elected by the Army - an army he well knew how to manage.

There are several versions of Gordian’s death but the one believed to be most likely is that he was murdered by Philip, or by Philip’s order while still on the border of Persian in February of AD 244. The Thirteenth Book of the so-called Sibylline Oracles (prophecies actually written by a contemporary) supports this versian as well: "...betrayed by his colleague, he (Gordian) shall fall down the ranks, smitten by the gleaming iron..."

Strangely enough, the legions built a great tomb at the Circesian camp. It was a conspicuous object that could be seen from a great distance. As late as the Emperor Julian II many people visited the tomb out of "...respect for what might have been..."

In the meantime, Philip concluded what Stevenson calls an "inglorius" peace with Sapor and returned to Rome. He secured his power base, and then celebrated the Secular Games on the thousandth anniversary of the foundation of Rome - issuing the popular coinage with which we are all familiar. Philip’s reign was troubled by many rebellions and pretenders and soon he was forced to march against Trajanus Decius, who had been saluted Emperor by the army in Pannonia. Philip was killed at Verona - perhaps by his own troops - about the sixth year of his reign, AD 249.

There followed a succession of emperors, along with a general breakdown of the empire and the creation of breakaway empires in the East and the West. Gradually, and at great cost, these were supressed, and Aurelian, along with just one or two others "...rightly claimed and deserved the glorius title of Restorers of the Roman World..."

The restoration of the Empire culminated in the new order of C. Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus. Diocletian, according to many - including David Sear - was "...a competent general (but) far more distinguished as a statesman and reformer than as a soldier and during his twenty years of rule he introduced numerous reforms which completely transformed the character of the Empire..."

Stevenson argues that Diocletian found the Empire weak and shattered, threatened with immediate dissolution, and left it strong and compact, at peace within an triumphant abroad, stretching from the Tigris to the Nile, from the shores of Holland to the Euxine (Black Sea/Pontus Euxinus). At the same time, this image of the great Emperor was tarnished in many ways - but that is another story.

I’ve taken most of the material for this discussion from C.H.V. Sutherland, Michael Grant, Edward Gibbon, S.W. Stevenson, two articles in SAN (Society for Ancient Numismatics) by G. Ray Thompson (Salisbury State College) and Fergus Millar (University of London), along with some of the sources described in the content.

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