Journal of
Undergraduate Research
Volume 1, Issue 6 - March 2000
The Cote d'Ivoire Mask Tradition from the Viewpoint of Dance Ethnology: Dancing the Gap between Spirit and Human Worlds
Juliana Azoubel
INTRODUCTION
The Cote d'Ivoire (the
Ivory Coast) is the origin of several of the most important and interesting
masking traditions in Africa. In the West, these masks have been viewed
primarily as art objects. Through their embodiment in dance, however,
masks are the way many Ivorians communicate with supernatural forces
and bring power to the community. Encouraged by Mamadou Dahoue, UF's
1999 African Artist-in-Residence who through his heritage, is spiritually
enfranchised to wear certain masks, to teach about them, and to pass
on their tradition, and Joan Frosch, my mentor at the University of
Florida, I began to more fully understand the significance of Ivorian
masks by investigating the dances associated with the traditions. During
6 months of research with Professor Frosch I reviewed literature, viewed
and analyzed video footage, participated in interviews with Mamadou
Dahoue, studied dance, and participated in and observed rehearsals and
performances. For the remainder of this paper, I will refer to Mamadou
Dahoue as Mamadou-as was his preference.
In many of the interviews my mentor and I had with Mamadou, it became clear that the embodiment of the mask---through dance-- was the key to the transformation that scholars have alluded to but not specifically identified. For example, Doris Green has written, "Although the mask is not a living object, it has a psychological significance which might be considered as a psychological disguise. When the person adorns the mask, he is transformed in the spiritual being he is representing." 21). Dr. Robin Poynor, in his book African Art at the Harn Museum: Spirit Eyes, Human Hands, reveals the importance of the spirit world:
Those spirits that are believed to have lived as mortal beings at one time include both spirits of dead and ancestral spirits. When one dies, the "person" continues to exist but in a spiritual place and in a different way. Many souls are elected to remain in the vicinity of the places where they lived as mortals, but most will eventually be established in the other world, the spiritual sphere shared by other spiritual beings and forces. (14)
Mamadou made clear to me
the importance of bridging the gap between the spirit and day to day
world. In his teaching and interviews, in informal conversations, and
ultimately in his performance, he often referred to his Grandfather
Meman Djianfa as a guiding presence in his life: "the king of kings;
the one with supernatural powers." According to Mamadou, Meman
Djianfa is considered the founding king of the state of Djoa, which
is made up of eighteen villages. Mamadou's hometown, or "village"
as he referred to it, is Djorhole (six hours northwest from Abidjan,
the capital of the Cote d'Ivoire). Djorhole's population is divided
into three major groups: Akan, Kru and Malengue. The Dahoue
family belongs to the Malengue, and his family are speakers of
at least two languages: Koiaka and Guro. Their mask traditions
originate with the concept of Yu: Yu is the spiritual
force that is present in all things. The Guro people believe
that most of the masks originated as animals, once lived in the forest
and were transformed into spirits represented by masks.
Mamadou explained that Meman Djianfa's power allowed him to communicate with the animals, who in turn would rescue not only Djianfa but also his warriors from dangerous situations. According to Mamadou, Djianfa would himself transform into a black panther making the panther a sacred animal for the people of Djorhole. Mamadou described Djianfa as also having had the power to make himself invisible to fight against his enemies. In other situations Djianfa displayed even more supernatural powers such as spitting fire or even brushing his teeth with iron.
Mamadou says that a day before Meman Djianfa's death, Djianfa appeared to his people to announce that he was about to leave this world; Djianfa said:
Seven days after my death, bring me some corn meal and chicken to worship my grave, and ask anything you want in order to solve any problem and my spirit will assist you. All my descendents will be under my protection. At the end of the ceremony, bring fire to light my body, cut my head and bury the rest of my body. The chopped head will appear and, when you are in danger, save you.
According to Mamadou, Djianfa's requests were precisely carried out after his death. At the cutting of the head, the blood spilled and gave birth to the river they now call Yanflo (the river of success). His tomb gave birth to the mountain Kromanro, which means to give birth to happiness, life and success. Djianfa's head became the Djoanigbe mask.
THE DJOANIGBE MASK
Djoanigbe is a mask used in rites of passage for teenagers: he is the teacher for the initiates, their spirit guide; and the primary source of enlightenment in their young lives. There are two ways a person can learn to perform the mask. The tradition of Djoanigbe is passed from one generation to the next within the mask family. Therefore, one can either be born into the Djoanigbe mask family-such as Mamadou was, or one can request instruction from a member of a mask family. If a child happens to be chosen by the ancestors to become a mask, according to Mamadou, the child's parents would certainly be the first to recognize this and would guide their child to follow that calling. Only males may become the mask, and the men who are initiated to wear the Djoanigbe mask are to talk about it only with men, never with women. The details of what one experiences in the bush with this mask is never to be revealed to the rest of the community. Traditionally, the ritual of initiation for Djoanigbe lasts for an intense seven days. Djoanigbe is a very important mask among the people from the Cote d'Ivoire and, fortunately, it is one that I had the opportunity to see perform.
The movements of Djoanigbe show speed and power. They are grounded low to the earth and there is a sense of mystery in the performance juxtaposed by moments of surprise that shock and startle. Since most of the steps are designed to imitate the running of a panther-the sacred or totem animal-the performance requires a great deal of space. In his November 18, 1999 performance on the stage of the Center for Performing Arts, the Djoanigbe mask completely covered the space, pacing with quick stops and direction changes. In his October 2, 1999 performance at the Harn Museum of Art, the Djoanigbe mask actually leapt into the audience, pacing in great long strides and kneeling before persons to which the mask wanted to show special respect. The movement fully embodies the awe-inspiring power of Djoanigbe, and the black mask decorated with cowrie shells creates an imposing presence.
THE ZAOULI MASK AND HER FLIRTATIOUS SISTER FLALI
According to the Guros,
the masks that did not originate from the animal spirits are entertainment
masks, and among them are Sauli (Zaouli), Flali
and Wali. The essential dance activity for the Zaouli
mask is rapid-fire movement of the feet . Dictated by the rhythm of
the drums for both the Zaouli figure and the head movements of
the forest dancers, this dance is high speed and very dynamic (Poynor).
"Saouli masks are topped by multi-figured compositions, the subjects
of which often have nothing to do with the dance itself. The purpose
of the superstructure seems to be to introduce an element of surprise
into the entertainment and to increase its attractiveness"(Poynor
173). The Zaouli mask that Mamadou had made in the Cote d'Ivoire
for the purposes of the residency was a long, orange-colored, smiling
visage. The top of the mask was adorned with a figure of the sacred
panther and a ram flanking the gray-suited figure of Felix Houphouet-Boigny
first and long-time president of Cote d'Ivoire (1960-1993), and affectionately
referred to as "Le Vieux," or "the old man."
Zaouli is female yet the Zaouli performer is always male. The cross-gender mask performs on many different occasions to amuse people: during holidays, for entertainment of visitors to the community, to collect food from the community members during the initiation process, and also in some funeral ceremonies. Zaouli has a young sister called Flali. This mask, also performed exclusively by men, shares many characteristics of Zaouli, including the actual mask. It is entirely the dance activity that distinguishes Flali from her sister, Zaouli. Flali shows more charm and flirting in her performance. She uses a high proportion of upper back articulation in her dance, contrasting the forceful footwork-based that characterizes Zaouli. The performance of Flali is a deep play on movement characteristics of a woman and the dance becomes exaggeratedly feminine and more delicate than a female dancer's, and of Zaouli's for that matter.
During the November 18th performances and the many rehearsals leading up to it, I observed the similarities and differences between the two masks. The feminine gestures, which were so foreign to Mamadou's natural way of moving and acting, only reconfirmed for me the dramatic transformation, which the mask wearer undergoes. As Mamadou said, "You should be born to wear and dance with the mask. Not everyone can do it." He is considered an expert in the Zaouli and Flali masks. In spite of the fact that these masks are not representative of spirit ancestors, Mamadou describes himself as one of the few in his community who has permission to perform and speak about them.
CONCLUSION
In the Western mind, the existence of parallel worlds is, at best, an uncomfortable concept. However, the masked dance tradition proves --in real life, in real time and space--the vibrancy and meaning of parallel worlds for many Ivorians. Through the masked dance traditions, Ivorians clearly expand the concept of art to include a way of manipulating and bridging worlds. Ivorian masking traditions, their reasons to exist and their endurance over time, can be comprehended by the recognition and power the dancer has to become a "messenger" from one world to another.
More than figures used to decorate the walls, masks embodied by a performer, can express emotions, feelings, and ideas that serve to orient the society; and often, use the hand of the spirit to control, discipline and to order lives. This process is facilitated by the fact that audiences, composed of fellow villagers, have been brought up in this tradition and believe in its history and power. The mask communicates advice, order, and feelings in a dynamic language of motions and real-life presence. Each mask uses stylized movement with a specific purpose, and each step becomes a tool for the precise expression of the spiritual forces in the society.
Ivorians, like many other Africans, believe that death is another stage of life, not the end of it. During this other stage of life, the spirit is powerful and is respected by human beings for all that he or she has done while inhabiting the human world. Because of this, special powers and decisions are attributed to those spirits. Those spirits embody the masks with their powerful dances and thrilling movement presence.
In the Cote d'Ivoire, dance gives life to static figures so that spirits may create meaning in society. Through movement, concepts are embodied and continue to have life and to develop over time. These concepts, then, are passed from generation to generation. As masked dance paves the way for spiritual guides to protect society, it is also a critical strategy to preserve, practice, and project cultural meaning into the future.
Photos courtesy of Juliana Azoubel
REFERENCES
- Drewal, Henry John and Margaret Thompson Drewal. Gelede: Art and Female Power among the Yoruba. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983.
- Drewal, Margaret Thompson. Yoruba Ritual: Performers, Play, Agency. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1992.
- Fischer, Eberhard and Lorenz Homberger. Masks in Guro Culture, Cote d'Ivoire. Museum Rietberg, Zurich and The Center for African Art Eds. New York, 1986
- Green Doris. "Traditional Dance in Africa". African Dance: An Historical and Philosophical Inquiry. Ed. Kariamu Welsh Asante. Tenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press, Inc, 1996. (21,22).
- Mbiti, John S. African Religious and Philosophy,1996. Heineman, 1990
- Poynor, Robin. African Art at the Harn Museum: Espirit Eyes, Human Hands. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 1995.
- Tierou, Alphonse. La Danse Africaine c'est La Vie. Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 1983.
- Doople: Loi Eternelle de La Danse Africaine. Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 1989.
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